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  sheep krios Ovis aries

  sheep oïs Ovis aries

  sheep probaton Ovis aries

  shrew mygalē Soricidae

  tiger martikhōras Panthera tigris

  marten iktis Martes sp.

  weasel galē Mustela sp.

  wolf, grey lykos Canis lupus

  CETACEANS KĒTŌDEIS CETACEA

  dolphin delphis* Delphinidae

  whale phalaina Odontoceti

  BIRDS ORNITHES AVES

  bee-eater, European merops Merops apiaster

  blackbird kottyphos Turdus merula

  bustard, great ōtis Otis tarda

  chaffinch spiza Fringilla coelebs

  chicken alektōr Gallus domesticus

  chicken, Adrianic adrianikē Gallus domesticus

  cormorant, great korax Phalacrocorax carbo

  crane, Eurasian geranos Grus grus

  crow, hooded korōnē Corvus corone

  cuckoo kokkyx Cuculus sp.

  dove, turtle trygōn Streptopelia turtur

  duck, teal? boskas Anas crekka?

  eagle aietos Aquila

  flamingo, greater* phoinikopteros Phoenicopterus ruber

  nightjar aigothēlas Caprimulgus europaeus

  goldcrest tyrannos Regulus regulus

  goose khēn Branta sp.

  grebe, great crested kolymbis Podiceps cristatus

  vulture aigypios Aegypius sp.

  hawk hierax Accipitridae, small

  heron pellos Ardea sp.

  hoopoe, Eurasian epops Upapa epops

  ibis* ibis Threskiornithidae

  jay, Eurasian kissa Garrulus glandarius

  kestrel kenkhris Falco sp. tinnunculus or F. naumanni

  kingfisher alkyōn* Alcedo atthis

  kite iktinos Milvus sp.

  lark korydalos Alaudidae

  nuthatch, rock kyanos Sitta neumayer

  ostrich strouthos Libykos Struthio camelus

  owl, little* glaux Athene noctua

  owl, Ural? aigōlios Strix uralensis?

  partridge perdix Alectoris or Perdix

  pelican, Dalmatian pelekan Pelecanus crispus

  pigeon peristera Columba sp.

  pigeon, wood phatta Columba palumbus

  quail ortyx Coturnix vulgaris

  raven korax Corvus corax

  seagull laros Laridae

  sparrow strouthos Passer sp.

  stilt, black-winged krex* Himantopus himantopus

  stork, white pelargos Ciconia ciconia

  swallow khelidōn Hirundo rustica

  tit aigithallos Parus sp.

  tit, coal melankoryphos Parus ater

  turtle dove trygōn Streptopelia turtur

  woodpecker* dryokolaptēs Dendrocopus sp.

  woodpecker hippos Dendrocopus sp.

  woodpecker pipō Dendrocopus sp.

  woodpecker, green keleos Picus viridis

  wren trokhilos Troglodytes troglodytes

  EGG-LAYING ŌIOTOKA REPTILIA* + AMPHIBIA

  TETRAPODS TETRAPODA

  chameleon chamaileōn Chamaeleo chamaeleon chamaeleon

  crocodile krokodeilos potamios Crocodylus niloticus

  gecko, Turkish? askalabōtēs Hemidactylus turcicus?

  lizard sauros Lacertidae

  tortoise chelōnē Testudo sp.

  terrapin emys Mauremys rivulata?

  turtle khelōnē thallattia Cheloniidae

  SNAKES OPHEIS SERPENTES

  snake, water hydros Natrix tessalata?

  snake, large drakōn Serpentes

  Ottoman viper ekhidna Vipera xanthina

  FISHES IKTHYES CHONDRICHTHYES + OSTEICHTHYES

  blenny, rusty? phykis* Parablennius sanguinolentus?

  blotched picarel mainis Spicara maena

  catfish, Aristotle’s glanis Silurus aristotelis

  comber khannos Serranus cabrilla

  comber, painted perkē Serranus scriba

  eel, European enkhelys Anguilla anguilla

  goby kōbios Gobius cobitis?

  ‘goby, white’ leukos kōbios unknown

  gurnard kokkis Triglidae

  gurnard lyra Triglidae

  John Dory khalkeus Zeus faber

  mullet, grey khelōn Mugilidae

  mullet, grey kephalos Mugilidae

  mullet, grey kestreus Mugilidae

  mullet, grey myxinos Mugilidae

  mullet, red triglē Mullus sp.

  parrotfish skaros Sparisoma cretense

  pipefish belonē Syngnathus sp.

  salema salpē Sarpa salpa

  scorpionfish skorpaina Scorpaena scrofa

  sea bass, European labrax Dicentrarchus labrax

  sea bream, annular sparos Diplodus annularis

  sea bream, gilthead khrysophrys Sparus aurata*

  sea bream, pandora erythrinos Pagellus erythrinus

  sea bream, striped mormyros Lithognathus mormyrus

  sea bream, white sargos Diplodus sargus sargus

  sea perch, swallowtail anthias Anthias anthias

  shad thritta Alosa sp. or another Clupeid

  smelt, sand atherinē Antherina presbyter

  tuna, blue fin thynnos Thunnus thynnus

  unknown korakinos unknown

  unknown, sardine-like khalkis Clupeidae

  unknown, sardine-like membras Clupeidae

  unknown, sardine-like trikhis Clupeidae

  CARTILAGENOUS SELAKHĒ; CHONDRICHTHYES

  FISHES

  angelshark rhinē Squatina squatina

  dogfish, smooth leios galeos Mustelus mustelus

  dogfish, spiny akanthias galeos Squalus acanthias

  dogfish, spotted skylion Scyliorhinus sp.

  frogfish* batrakhos Lophius piscatoris

  guitarfish? rhinobatos Rhinobatos rhinobatos?

  ray, torpedo narkē Torpedo torpedo

  skate or ray batos/batis Rajiformes

  shark galeos Galeomorphi + Squalomorphi

  UNCLASSIFIED BLOODED ANIMALS

  tadpole or eft kordylos Amphibia

  bat nykteris Microchiroptera

  fruit bat, Egyptian (flying fox) alōpēx Rousettus aegyptiacus

  English name Aristotle’s name Linnaean name

  BLOODLESS ANIMALS ANHAIMA INVERTEBRATA*

  ‘SOFT-SHELLS’ MALAKOSTRAKA CRUSTACEA (MOST)

  crab karkinos Brachyura

  crab, fan mussel pinnophylax Nepinnotheres pinnotheres

  crab, ghost hippos Ocypode cursor

  lobster astakos Homarus gammarus

  shrimp karis Nantantia + Stomapoda

  shrimp, fan mussel pinnophylax Pontonia pinnophylax or similar spp.

  spiny lobster karabos Palinurus elephas

  shrimp, mantis krangōn Squilla mantis

  ‘SOFT-BODIES’ MALAKIA CEPHALOPODA

  cuttlefish sēpia Sepia officinalis

  octopus, common polypodōn megiston genos Octopus vulgaris

  octopus, musky bolitaina Eledone moschata

  octopus, musky heledōnē Eledone moschata

  octopus, musky ozolis Eledone moschata

  paper nautilus nautilos polypous Argonauta argo

  squid, European teuthis Loligo vulgaris

  squid, sagittal teuthos Todarodes sagittatus

  ‘HARD-SHELLS’ OSTRAKODERMA GASTROPODA + BIVALVIA + ECHINOZOA + ASCIDIACEA + CIRRIPEDIA

  cockle khonkhos, rhabdōtos Cardidae

  trakhyostrakos

  limpet lepas Patella sp.

  mussel, fan pinna Pinna nobilis

  oyster limnostreon Ostrea sp.

  razorfish?* sōlēn Solenidae?

  scallop kteis Pectinidae

  sea urchin, edible esthiomenon ekhinos Paracentrotus lividus

  sea urchin, long-spine ekhinos genos mikron Cidaris cidaris

  sea squirt tēthyon Ascidiacea

  snail, murex porphyra Haustellum brandaris

  snail, murex porphyra Hexaplex trunculus

  snail, trumpet kēryx Charonia variegata

  snail, turban nēre
itēs Monodonta sp.?

  ‘DIVISIBLES’ ENTOMA INSECTA + CHELICERATA + MYRIAPODA

  ant myrmēx Formicidae

  bee, honey (drone) kēphēn Apis mellifera

  bee, honey (queen, lit. king) basileus Apis mellifera

  bee, honey (queen, lit. leader) hēgemōn Apis mellifera

  bee, honey (worker) melissa Apis mellifera

  beetle, dung kantharos Scarabaeoidea

  butterfly psychē Lepidoptera

  centipede or millipede ioulos Myriapoda

  cicada tettix Cicada sp.

  clothes moth sēs Tinea sp.

  cockchafer mēlolonthē Geotrupes sp.

  flea psylla Siphonaptera

  fly myia Diptera

  fly, horse myōps Tabanus sp.

  grasshopper akris Acrididae

  locust attelabos Acrididae

  louse phtheir Phthiraptera

  mayfly ephēmeron Ephemeroptera

  pseudoscorpion to en tois bibliois Chelifer cancroides

  gignonmenon skorpiōdes*

  scorpion skorpios Scorpio sp.

  spider arachnē Araneae

  tick kynoraistēs Ixodes ricinus

  wasp sphēx Vespidae

  wasp, hunting anthrēnē Vespidae

  wasp, fig psēn Blastophaga psenes

  wasp, parasitoid kentrinēs Philotrypesis caricae?

  UNCLASSIFIED

  fish louse oistros ō tōn thynnōn Caligus sp.

  hermit crab karkinion Paguroidea

  jellyfish? pneumōn* Scyphozoa?

  red coral korallion Corallium rubrum

  sea anemone knidē Actinaria

  sea anemone akalēphē Actinaria

  sea cucumber? holothourion* Holothuria?

  sponge spongos Dictyoceratida

  sponge, black Ircinia aplysias Sarcotragus muscarum?

  starfish astēr Asteroidea

  worm helminthes Plathyhelminthes + Annelida + Nematoda, etc.

  worms, tape helminthōn plateion genos Taenia sp.

  worm, nematode (‘round’) strongyleion Ascaris?

  worms, unknown akarides unknown

  APPENDICES

  Here I present some of Aristotle’s data and models as he might were he writing now: in tables and diagrams. Such devices are not in principle un-Aristotelian since he clearly used abstract models to explain biological phenomena at least occasionally – for example, when he explains animal geometry in PA or perception and movement in MA.* Nevertheless, my justification for using them does not rest upon such examples, for my purpose is not to reproduce his methods, but rather to understand the strengths and weaknesses of his data and his explanations. The absence of data tables in his work is particularly painful: he can take a book (e.g. HA VI on avian life history) to explain patterns that would now be summarized in a single table in Nature – and in the Online Supplementary Information at that. In the same way it is also impossible to know whether the heart–lung cycle he gives in JSVM 26 really works as he says it does without building a control model or else a physical analogue – and the first seems a lot easier. Classical philosophers may shy at the resulting tables and diagrams; to them such devices may seem incongruously modern. I would ask them to view them merely as tools analogous to their use of modern symbolic notation to explicate and test the coherence of Aristotle’s logic. Scientists will be less fussed; to them, the utility of such devices will seem obvious and they will only wonder how Aristotle got as far as he did using mere words. I would ask them to remember that, although he was smart, he did live a long time ago.

  I. A DATA MATRIX FOR TWELVE ARISTOTELIAN KINDS AND SIX MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES

  This table displays some of the morphological features that Aristotle thinks some animals have. His information is not always correct. For convenience the feature states are first coded as integers. If Aristotle thinks an animal kind has more than one feature state this is indicated with a slash, for example 0/1; intermediate states are indicated as 0.5; no data as ‘NA’. This table is based on the following sources. Foot type: lion, dog, sheep, goat, deer, hippopotamus, horse, mule, pig, HA 499b5.

  Astragalus with foot type: lion, pig, man, cloven-hoofed animals, solid-hoofed animals, HA 499b20; human HA 494a15; camel HA 499a20. Horns with cloven hoofs: ox, deer, goat HA 499b15. Tooth number and horns: horned animals, camels, HA 501a7, HA 499a22. Tooth type and horns: pig, lion, dog, horse, ox, HA 501a15; elephant HA 501b30. Stomach type and horns and tooth number: HA 495b25; HA 507b30, human HA 495b25. The feature matrix shows a strong association between the various features that Aristotle describes. These associations then become the target of explanations. This table could be expanded to include more kinds and features, but I do not do so since for these either his data are incomplete or he makes little of them.

  II. RESOURCE (TROPHĒ) ACQUISITION AND ALLOCATION PATHWAY FOR A LIVE-BEARING TETRAPOD (A MAMMAL)

  This diagram summarizes Aristotle’s vision of the metabolic system, how nutrition is taken up, transformed and allocated to its various ends. The arrows represent material flows. Aristotle’s ‘uniform parts’ are roughly equivalent to our tissues except that he is emphatic they have no microscopic structure such as atoms or cells. All uniform parts derive from blood, itself a uniform part. There are two great branches in the network, earthy uniform parts and fatty uniform parts, with flesh being at the terminus of a branch of its own. All reactions produce waste; and all uniform parts are broken down into waste and excreted, giving an open system. Some nutrition goes to fuel the internal fire. The nodes represent specific transformations of nutrient. The supporting statements for network are as follows. Blood is the final/universal nutriment: PA 650a34, PA 651a15. Flesh is made from the purest nutriment and bones, sinews, etc. are residues: GA 744b20. Flesh is concocted blood and fat is the surplus blood left over from this: PA 651a 20. Fat is concocted blood: PA 651a21. Fat can be soft or hard (suet or lard): PA 651a20. Semen comes from blood, specifically from the part that forms fat: PA 651b10; GA 726a5. Marrow is partially concocted blood: PA 651b20. Hoofs, horns and teeth are related to bone: PA 655b1, PA 663a27. Bones and marrow are made from a common precursor: PA 652a10. Cartilage and bone are fundamentally the same thing: PA 655a27. Deposits from the bladder and gut are residues of nourishment: PA 653b10. Bile is a residue of nourishment: PA 677a10.*

  LEGEND

  N nutrition

  B blood

  H hooves, hair, nails

  T teeth

  M marrow

  C cartilage

  O bone

  F flesh

  L lard

  U suet

  S semen

  V vaginal secretions, menstrual fluid, milk

  E excreta: urine, bile, faeces

  III. THE CIOM MODEL OF PERCEPTION AND ACTION

  This diagram represents the Centralized Incoming Outgoing Motions model of how Aristotle supposes animals transmit perceptual information from the peripheral sense organs to the sensorium (the heart), how this information is integrated with respect to the animal’s goals and how it is transformed into movement in its limbs via the action of pneuma and the mechanical workings of the sinews.* The arrows represent causal relations.

  IV. CONTROL DIAGRAM OF ARISTOTLE’S HEART–LUNG THERMOREGULATORY CYCLE

  This is the simplest of many possible models that could describe the heart–lung cycle that Aristotle sketches in JSVM 26.* The arrows represent control relations. To make Aristotle’s model work we need various assumptions explicit that he does not. Here, we assume that the animal has an ideal ‘reference’ temperature, Tr. The goal of the system is to maintain the temperature of the heart, Th, at that temperature. The system works in the following way. Nutrition enters the heart and is concocted. The temperature of the nutrition (now blood), Tn, rises above the reference temperature. If that increase in temperature is sufficient to exceed heat loss due to diffusion (see below), it will increase the heart temperature, Th. Since lung volume is a function of the difference between Th and Tr, lung volume i
ncreases. This results in an increase in the rate of air flow through the mouth, Fa. Since air temperature, Ta, is lower than the reference temperature, heart temperature declines and the lung contracts. The result is a negative feedback control system. Note that we allow for the constant loss of some fraction of heart heat by diffusion, perhaps via the brain that, in Aristotle’s view, acts as a radiator. This will tend to damp the system making it less sensitive to increases in Tn and gives an equilibrium at Tr. This system will work only if air temperature is lower than the ideal reference temperature. If, however, Ta > Tr, then no amount of air will reduce Th, the negative feedback loop will become an unstable positive feedback loop, and the animal’s lungs will stay permanently open or permanently closed, either way extinguishing the fire (due to excess cold or consumption of all the nutrient), thus resulting in death. As described here, the system will tend to a stable dynamic equilibrium rather like a thermostat. However, if additional delays or non-linearities are included, it will produce the oscillatory behaviour that Aristotle supposed explained the lung’s movements. The model was produced with the kind help of David Angeli, Electrical Systems Control Group, Imperial College London.

  LEGEND

  Tr reference temperature

  Th heart temperature

  Tn nutrient temperature

  Ta air temperature

  Fn nutrient flow

  Fa air flow

  Vl lung volume

  Kd heat diffusion constant

  Km air intake constant

  O sensor

  ⊗ multiplier

  + positive regulation

  – negative regulation

  V. ARISTOTLE’S LIFE-HISTORY DATA: LIVE-BEARING TETRAPODS AND BIRDS

  These tables summarize Aristotle’s life-history data. His data are a bit more complex than the tables suggest and, again, are not always correct. Since Aristotle does not have descriptive statistics, he often says that something is ‘generally’ the case; if so, that is the value I give. If he gives a range, I report a median but ignore exceptional cases. When he says that he is uncertain (e.g. about the great lifespan of the elephant or the short lifespan of the sparrow) I have indicated this with a u. In some cases Aristotle does not explicitly say that a particular kind has some value for a given life-history variable, but just speaks generally about the megista genos – for example, ‘very few birds propagate in their first year’. In such cases, I have indicated the value as belonging to all kinds within that greater kind unless noted otherwise; but in cases where he does not say explicitly that a value applies to a megista genos I have not assumed it. For example, he probably knows that most large live-bearing tetrapods (mammals) have one brood per year, but he does not say so. The exception to this rule is body size. Aristotle never reports quantitative data for body size, nor even whether an animal is big or small except in the context of a functional explanation. From such explanations, however, it’s clear that he thinks a human or an ostrich is ‘large’, a pig or a chicken is ‘medium-sized’ and a cat or sparrow is ‘small’ relative to the megista genos to which each belongs; I have filled in appropriate body sizes accordingly. Most of these data come from HA V and VI; data on embryonic perfection come from GA IV. Aristotle argues correctly that multi-toed animals (fox, bear, lion, dog, wolf, jackal, etc.) have imperfect young; solid- and split-hoofed animals (cow, horse) have perfect young. The pig is an oddity, being split-hoofed and having relatively perfect offspring. Among the birds, Aristotle names ravens, jays, sparrows, swallows, ring doves, turtle doves and pigeons as having imperfect neonates – but doesn’t name any perfect ones. He probably bases his generalizations on more data than he reports.